Learning English Roots

1. There are so many roots, prefixes, and suffixes, is there any way to reduce the number of roots that I need to know?
Yes, if you understand equivalent root groups.
(In this particular discussion, a root means a normal root, prefix, or suffix.)
There are there equivalent groups of roots: 1) Consonant Assimilation Group, 2) Ending Consonant Conversion Group, and 3) Vowel Dissimilation Group.

1) Consonant Assimilation Group
Many Greek or Latin prefixes can be classified into just one single prefix due to the assimilation process by which a prefix changes its final consonant to the initial consonant of the root to which the prefix is attached, just for the purpose of easy of pronunciation.
For example sym- (as in symmetry), sys- (as in system), and syl- (as in syllable) are just the same as syn- (as in synthetic). Prefixes sym-, sys-, syl-, and syn- make one Equivalent Consonant Assimilation Group. Please see the S entry for sym- under the Greek Roots Alphabetical List yourself.

This is especially true with many Latin prefixes: ad-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, am-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, and at-. They are all the same as at- (which means to, toward, near, very (or intensive)). Prefixes ad-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, am-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, and at- make one Equivalent Consonant Assimilation Group. Please see A entry for at- under the Latin Roots Alphabetical List yourself.

And con-, co-, col-, com-, cor- are all the same as con-. Please see C entry for con- under the Latin Roots Alphabetical List.
And in-, il-, im-, ir-, en-, em- are all the same as in-. em- is used before b or p as in embalm, empower; im- is used before b or p as in imbib, import.
And ob-, o-, oc-, of-, and op- are all the same as op-;
And sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus- are all the same as sub-.

2) Ending Consonant Conversion Group
A root ending in d can be equivalently converted to a root ending in s. This includes: ced -> cess. ced and cess are just equivalent. Please see the C entry for ced under the Latin Roots Alphabetical List.
Also includes:
grad, gred -> gress. grad, gred and gress are just equivalent.
cid -> cis
fod (dig) -> foss (dig)
lapid -> lapis
claud -> claus
clud -> clus
pend -> pens
pand -> pans
cend -> cens
ard -> ars
vert -> vers
vort -> vors
pot (power) -> poss (power)
tort -> tors, tort, tors, and torq are just equivalent
trud -> trus
spond -> spons
fid -> fiss
scind -> sciss
spond -> spons
rad -> ras
rod -> ros, rad, ras, rod, ros and raz all equivalent, meaning scrap; scratch; gnaw
Sometimes t can be equivalently converted to s as
opt -> ops
vert -> vers
vort -> vors
tort -> tors, tort, tors, and torq are just equivalent
thanat (death) -> thanas (death)
sept (poison from decay) -> seps (poison from decay)
Sometimes r can be equivalently converted to l as per- -> pel-
inter- -> intel-, example words: interscholastic and intelligent
If A root starts with s, the s is often dropped if the root is following prefix ex-, example word expect:
expect = ex- (out) + spect (s in spect is dropped because it is after ex-)
Another example word is expire where pir is actually spir (which means breathe):
expire = ex-(out) + spir (breathe, s in spir is removed because of ex- before it) + e (no meaning)
expire = to breath out
expire = to breathe one's last breath; die

Sometimes ex- is just simply shortened to e- as in escalate:
escalate = e- (=ex-, out of; from; very. e- is intensifier here) + scal (ladder, scal is from scand which means climb; to increase) + -ate (do; make; cause)
escalate = to increase, enlarge, or intensify

3) Vowel Dissimilation Group
Opposite to the consonant assimilation: for a prefix, its an ending vowel will be changed if the prefix is attached to a root which starts with a vowel.
Greek a- (as in apathetic) and an- (as in anarchy) are equivalent which all means not, without.
An- in anarchy is just a-, but because it is attached to archy which starts with a, so a- is dissimilated into an-.
-ea is changed to -ia as in nausea where -ea is actually -ia which means a pathological condition.
Sometimes h in a root is omitted as in homo- (which means same), example word is anomaly where a- equivalent becomes an- because the next root is om. And for this om, it is actually homo- where h is omitted.
h in hema (blood) is omitted: hema -> ema
h in haem (blood) is omitted: haem -> aem
hiero- is equivalent (or will be changed to) to hier if it is used before a vowel as in hierarchy. mono- is equivalent to mon- as in monarchy.
Duplicated vowel is often removed for easy pronunciation as in pianist where
pianist = piano (where o is removed, because the next root starts with a vowel i) + -ist

cap and cip are the same which mean to take. Cip is used in place of cap in a compound word where there is prefix before it as in incipient.
fac, fic, and fect are the same which mean to do, make, and cause. Fic and fect are used in place of fac in a compound word where there is a prefix before it as in malefic and defect
cad, cid, ced and ceed (which mean to fall) work in the same way: ceed as in succeed.

Please also note that two vowels (o and i) are often found to be inserted between two consonants just for easy pronunciation;
1) o is often found to be inserted between two Greek roots as in phonograph where o is inserted between phon and graph: phonograph = phon + o (o does not have meaning, inserted just for easy pronunciation)+ graph.
2) i is often found to be inserted between two Latin roots, as in nutrient:
nutrient = nutr (nourish) + i (i does not have meaning, inserted just for easy pronunciation) + -ent (relating to);
and in pisciculture:
pisciculture = pisc (fish) + i + cult (cultivate) + -ure (act);


2. Is a Greek root more difficult than a Latin root?
No, Greek roots are found to be easier than Latin roots. Greek root meaning is straight forward. It provides key to the meaning for a word. Latin root just provide some clues or hints to the meaning of a word.

3. Is a long word more difficult to dissect than a short one?
No, A long word is found to be easier.
Example: dyschromatopsia
Meaning of dyschromatopsia:
difficulty in telling colors apart; color blindness
(Meaning in Chinese characters: 色觉障碍)
Dissection of dyschromatopsia:
dyschromatopsia = dys- (difficult; bad) + chromat (color) + ops (eye; view; sight) + -ia (suffix for noun for illness)
dyschromatopsia = a pathological condition of eye in which the person can not tell colors apart

4. Words are derived from Greek roots or Latin roots, any example words to show the equivalence between them?
There are many words that are derived from Greek root or Latin root, having the same meaning:
Word derived from Greek = word derived from Latin
For example：
prognosticate = predict
apotheosis = deification
genealogy = pedigree
progeny = descendant
progenitor = ancestor
cephalalgia = headach
diaphanous = transparent
paragon = model
cardiac (of heart) = cordial (warm)
somatic = corporate
hypogeum = vault
odont = dent
georgic = agricultureal
geron = senior
polyglot = multilingual
malediction = imprecation
andr = vir
meta- = trans-
zo = anim
phot-, phos- = luci- (which means light)
pher-, phor- = fer- (which means carry)

5. How many way or roots to say science or a field of study?
-logy as in geology
-nomy as in astronomy
-ics as in phonics, physics
-graphy as in geography
-metry as in geometry, photometry
-istry as in chemistry, dentistry

6. Any roots that are easily confused?
ana- (which means according to, back, upon, again) can be easily confused with an- (which means not, without, same as a-. a- becomes an- when a- is used before a vowel):
ana- as in anathema
Dissection of anathema:
anathema = ana- (according to; back, up, upon, again) + them (put, place) + -a (???)
anathema = things that have been put back
extended further to mean things that have been devoted to evil
extended further to mean a thing that a person damned or accursed (being under curse)

anathema should not be dissected into anathema = an- (not) + athema

Greek root miso (which means hate, example word misogamy) is quite confusable with Latin root prefix mis- (which means bad, badly, wrong, wrongly, example word misfortune)
epi- (a Greek root, which means upon, on) as in ephemeral (lasting a short time) is confusable with apo- (also a Greek root, which means away) as in apostle (send away).
di- (two) as in dielectric can be confused with dia- (through) as in diagram.

7. Any English words that can cause confusion to the study of Greek and Latin roots?
Some English words can easily cause interference to the study of Greek and Latin roots. The following English words can easily mixed with Latin roots: 1) beat, 2) her, 3) lot, 4) miss, 5) pot, 6) umbrella, 7) can, 8) put, 9) sum, 10) leg, and 11) may.

1) beat
a) beat in English means to hit or to strike repeatedly, pound, to defeat.
b) beat as a Latin root means happy or blessed, as in beatific:
beatific = beat (happy; blessed) + i (no meaning, just for easy pronunciation) + -ifc (causing; doing; making);
beatific = making someone happy or blessed or blissful

2) her
a) her in English means pronoun, which is objective case of she.
b) her as a Latin root means to stick, as in adhere:
adhere = ad- (to) + her (stick) + -e (-e does not having meaning, please see -e in the dissection of lucre);
adhere = to stick fast
which does not have anything to do with the objective case of she.

3) lot
a) lot in English originally means fate or an object used in determining something that happens by chance.
b) lot as a Latin root means wash as in lotion:
lotion = lot (wash) + -ion (condition; state; quality; act);
lotion = an act of washing;
extended further to mean something for washing;
extended further to mean a liquid for washing your hand or body, for cosmetic or medicinal use;

4) miss
a) miss (mistress) in English means a courtesy title for a girl, it also means fail to hit.
b) miss as a Latin root means to send as in emission:
emission = e- (out of) + miss (send; let go) + -ion (process; act);
emission = the act or process of sending out

5) pot
a) pot in English means (Cookery) a container made of earthenware, glass, or similar material; usually round and deep, often having a handle and lid, used for cooking and other domestic purposes
b) pot as a Latin root means to drink as in potable potable:
Dissection of potable:
potable = pota (drink) + remove a + -able (able);
potable = drinkable

6) umbrella
a)a portable device used for protection against rain, snow, etc, and consisting of a light canopy supported on a collapsible metal frame mounted on a central rod. So Chinese people like to think that an umbrella is for shielding off rain. However Latin root umbr has nothing to do with rain.
b) Latin root umbr has nothing to do with rain, but with shade, it literally means shade.
umbrella originally means sunshade, has nothing to do with rain.

7) can
a) can in English means to be able to, have the power or skill to
b) This English word 'can' can cause a lot of confusion to the understanding of other English words, such as candidate, candid where 'can' occurs.
candidate has nothing to do with 'can', but with white
candidate = cand (white, shining white) + -id (relating to) + -ate (a person who);
candidate means an office position seeker in ancient Rome who wore a gown in pure white color.

8) put
a) put in English means to place in a place
b) This English word 'put' can cause confusion to the understanding of other English words, such as computer (a device that can calculate or process data according to a set of instructions), repute (to consider to be specified)
computer has nothing with placing, but with thinking
computer = com-(=-con, together) + put (think, reckon) +-er (suffix for a person)
computer = a person (or a device) that thinks
computer = a device that can calculate or process data with a set of instructions
repute has nothing to do with placing
repute = re-(again) + put (think, reckon)
repute = to rethink, to consider


9) sum
a) sum in English means the whole amount, usually as a result of adding numbers
b) This English word 'sum' can cause confusion to the understanding of other English words, such as consume which means to eat or drink up which has nothing to with addition of numbers, and resume which means to begin or take up again after interruption
consume = con- (an intensifier) + sum (to take up) + -e (no meaning)
consume = to eat up or drink up

resume = re- (again) + sum (to take up) + -e (no meaning)
consume = to begin or take up again after interruption


10) leg
a) leg in English means a lower limb of an animal to move or support the animal
b) This English word 'leg' can cause confusion to the understanding of other English words, such as legend which means a story handed down from earlier times
legend = leg (to read, gather) + -end (suffix for a thing to be dealt with in a specified way)
legend = a story to be read
legend = a story that is passed down from earlier times


11) may
a) may in English means to have permission to
b) This English word 'may' can cause confusion to the understanding of other English words, such as mayhem (intentional injuring or removing of a limb), mayday (an international radiotelephone distress call)
mayham has nothing to do with 'may', but with maim. It was originated from Old French mahaigne which means injury
mayham = mahaigne (originated from Old French, which means injury)
mayham = the wilful and unlawful infliction of injury upon a person, especailly the removing of a limb 8. Any way to invent an English word yourself?
Yes, you can invent an English word, if it is adopted by the public, you will be remembered.
Because Greek root is very straight forward, after learning the Greek roots, you can safely invent a word with some Greek roots.

For example, I made an ignominious attempt to invent the following words:
helianthus (which is the same sunflower)
dystrophy (which is the same as malnutrition)
etymphile (love of word roots)
sinepense (without payment), sinepense = sine- (without) + pense (pay). Note: this word is inspired by sinecure which means a position that gives you income and other benefits without doing real work
geophile (love of farm work)
paleobible (ancient book)
thermophilous (loving heat)
pangnoism (the state or quality of knowing all things)
miscephagous (eating different kinds of food, same as pantophagous)
gurgulous (tending to swallow up something greedily or in large amounts, this word is inspired by credulous)
It is notable that when scientists are coining a new word, they prefer Greek root (if there is one) to Latin root.
Considere the word irregardless which seems to be a nonsensical word is a word that has been recorded in Merriam-Webster dictionary since 1934! There is no right or wrong, but like or dislike for a word that you invent.

9. Any words that are difficult to dissect?
bishop is found to be very difficult to decipher its constituent roots, because they are well disguised.
Dissection of bishop:
bishop = bi- (bi- is well disguised, bi- is from ebi which is actually from epi-, so bi- is just epi-. Epi- means upon, in addition, or at, here it means upon) + shop (=scope, or skopein, which means look at, examine)
bishop = look upon something
extended further to mean a person who overlooks or oversees something
extended further to mean a high ranking person, an overseer
extended further to mean a high ranking Christian cleric

Alley is found to be the most difficult to dissect:
Dissection of alley:
alley = al- (=at-, which means to) + ley (=ambul, walk);
alley = to walk;
extended further to mean a passage, a lane, or a walk bordered by trees or bushes;
The difficulty lies in deciphering and establishing the relationship between ley and ambul.

Hypocrite though not difficult to dissect, is hard to get at its meaning. Please see the word hypocrite listed under the H entry in alphabetic list of Greek words.

10. Chinese language has a high frequency character 的 (which means of in English), any equivalent Greek root or Latin root for it?
Many roots are equivalent to the character 的 (which means of in English), e.g.
-ic, -ical as in thalassic (of sea)
-al as in vocal
-icious as in malicious
-ive as in effective
-ary as in boundary
-ile as in ductile (that can be drawn)
-ent (relating to) as in effulgent (radiant and splendid)


11. How to say Chinese word 人 (which means man, human being in English) in Greek root or Latin root?
-er as in driver
-or as in visitor
-ist as in pianist
-an as in veteran, artisan
-ate as in potentate (which means a person having great power)
-ary as in secretary (A person employed to handle correspondence, keep files, and do clerical work for another person or an organization)
anthrop as in anthropoid

12. A Chinese character has radicals, as an English word has roots, any equivalence between the radicals such as 木 (wood)， 禾 (deedling, sprout)， 米 (rice)， 足 (foot)， 人 (man)， 口 (mouth)， 手 (hand) and Greek or Latin roots?
木 (wood) = xyl, xylo- as in xylophone，
禾 (seedling, sprout) = phyt as in neophyte，
米 (rice) = oruza, spor, sperm, or semin，
足 (foot) = pod as in podiatrist，
人 (man) = anthrop as in anthropology，
口 (mouth) = stoma, oro- as in orifice, fiss as in fissure，
手 (hand) = chir as in surgey (where sur is actually chir).

13. Chinese idioms are usually difficult to translate. Are there any Chinese idioms that are directly mapped to English words derived from Greek or Latin roots?
Yes. Some interesting Chinese idioms and their equivalences to words from Greek or Latin are listed below.

轮回转世 = metempsychosis
the transmigration of the soul, esp. the passage of the soul after death into the body of another being, reincarnation
Dissection of metempsychosis:
metempsychosis = met- (same as meta- used before a vowel, beyond, after) + em- (in) + psycho (soul, spirit) + -sis(suffix for loanwords from Greek, used with verb to mean action, process, state, condition, etc., as in thesis)
metempsychosis = the passage of transferring a soul from one body to another

返老还童 = rejuvenescence
renewal of youthfulness
Dissection of rejuvenescence:
rejuvenescence = re- (back) + juven (young) + -escence (becoming);
rejuvenescence = becoming young again

一夫多妻 = polygyny
the state or practice of having two or more wives at the same time
Dissection of polygyny:
polygyny = poly- (multiple) + gyn (woman) + -y (suffix for noun)
polygyny = the state where there are multiple women as wives, said of a marriage state

目中无人 = supercilious:
coolly and patronizingly (in a condescending attitude) haughty
Dissection of supercilious:
supercilious = super- (above; extended further to mean high above) + cili (=cilium, eyelid) + -ious (full of);
supercilious = (of an attitude) having your eyelid high above other;
extended further to mean haughty;
extended further to mean coolly naughty

又臭又长 (指用词）= sesquipedalian
tending to use very long words
Dissection of sesquipedalian:
sesquipedalian = sesqui (one and a half) + ped (foot) + -al (relating to) + i + -an (characteristic of)
sesquipedalian = sequipedalian = tending to use one and half feet long words

千变万化 = pantomorphic
capable of assuming all shapes.
Dissection of pantomorphic:
pantomorphic = panto- (all) + morph (form) + -ic (suffix for an adjective, relating to, of)
pantomorphic = of all forms
pantomorphic = extended further to mean capable of taking on all forms or shapes

梦人呓语 = somniloquy
Dissection of somniloquy:
somniloquy = somn (sleep) + i + loqu (speak, talk) + - (-y, suffix for noun, as in inquiry);
somniloquy = the act of talking while asleep

甜言蜜语 = dulciloquy
Dissection of dulciloquy:
dulciloquy = dulc (sweet) + i + loqu (speak) + -y (suffix for noun as in inquiry)
dulciloquy = a way of speaking that is sweet, mellow

14. How to say 坏蛋 (an evildoer, or criminal) in English?
There are many words for 坏蛋: evildoer, criminal, and malefactor. Criminal does not have the connotation of naughtiness; evildoer is just a plain English compound word, it does not show your deep knowledge of Greek or Latin roots; malefactor is the best fit for this Chinese word.
malefactor = 坏蛋
an evildoer or criminal
Dissection of malefactor:
malefactor = mal- (bad, ill, evil) + e + fact (do) + -or (a person);
malefactor = a person who does evil; evildoer or one who commits an offense against the law

15. How to say 混蛋 (an evildoer, wrongdoer, miscreant, or a knave) in English?
The original meaning of 混蛋 (an evildoer, wrongdoer, miscreant) has nothing to do with 蛋 (egg). Its original meaning is 混沌 (chaos). It means a person who purposefully mix right with wrong, a very bad wrongdoer.
The English word that is closest in root meaning to 混蛋 is miscreant:
miscreant = mis- (wrong, bad, wrongly, badly, not) + cre (=cred, credit, believe, trust) + -ant (a person);
miscreant = a person who does not have any good belief
miscreant = a person who breaks the rules of law, a person who behaves badly
miscreant = an extremely bad wrongdoer

16. Why is it necessary to learn English word roots?
The simple Chinese characters we learned when we were kids such as wood (木）, cereal crop （禾）, rice （米）, foot （足）, person （人）, mouth （口）, hand （手）, mountain （山）, etc. became radicals of Chinese characters. Later, these radicals helped us understand and recognize new Chinese characters.
It is almost unlikely for us to encounter a case where a Chinese character meaning differs from its constituent radicals.

By this logic, one would think that learning basic English words would help us learn new, more complicated English words. So why isn’t this the case? Here are some reasons:
1) The words we learned when we were kids came from Old English words. Unfortunately, Old English words have little contribution to Modern English words. In fact, only about 800 Old English words have made their way into commonly used Modern English words. In other words, most of our commonly used words did not originate from Old English. Very few Old English elements became Modern English elements. This is why the basic English words we learned when we were younger don’t help us understand new English words.
During the Middle Old Age, the lower class spoke Middle Old English, while the upper class and aristocrats spoke Latin and French. For example, the laborers said pig, the aristocrats said pork. I’m sure that you have read many novels set in the Middle Old Age about aristocrats’ daughters who married Princes in other countries. From a language standpoint, how was this possible? Well, because at that time, the aristocrats of different countries all spoke Latin, so there was no language barrier.
French is a descendant of Latin, it almost exterminated English.
Due to historical reason between England and France, up to today, ordinary French people to the bone think that speaking French is more elegant and nobler than speaking English.

Actually, the simple English words that we learned when we were kids such as beat, lot, her, miss, pot, can, may, men, son, it，and umbrella, etc. cause interference to our learning and recognizing new English words (User can confirm this by searching for these roots on this web site or click here). This is quite frustrating.

One example: the word egg (originated from Middle Old English) that we learned when we were kids provides no help for our learning or recognizing of other new English words; but the word ovum (which also means egg, whose plural form is ova, originated from Latin) provides great help when we are recognizing several new words, such as oval, ovulate, ovule, ovulary, etc.
Another example: the word tree (originated from Old English) that we learned when we were young also provides no help, but the word arbor (which also means tree, originated from Latin) provides help when we are recognizing arboreal, arborescence, arboretum, arborist, and arborize, etc.

2) Most English words are loanwords or words borrowed from other languages.
The following shows where English words were borrowed from, and their percentages:
Latin (Rome): about 29%
Norman (France): about 29%
Germanic (Germany, etc.) about 26% (Some old English words were from Germanic)
Others (e.g. Greece): about 16%
(Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Foreign_language_influences_in_English)
That is, up to 80% of English words are loanwords.
Many Latin words are actually loanwords from Greek. A very simplified origination path for English words is as follows:
Greek -> Latin -> French -> English
This shows that most of English words did not originate from England itself.

A Chinese character has radicals, analogously, an English word has prefix, root, and suffix. The constituent elements of an English word determine the true meaning and usage of the word. This is why you need to study the Greek and Latin roots in English words. The mastery of the roots, just like the mastery of Chinese radicals, will allow you to infer and understand many words correctly. After leaning the prefixes, roots, suffixes, your vocabulary will increase exponentially, and you will have a deep understanding of the true meaning and usage of the words.


17. Why some roots in the dissection of a word do not include a meaning, but (???) ?
Efforts have been made to dissect a word correctly. However, for some words, we just can not figure out all its roots. (Of some words, not all etymologists agree on their origins). We always dissect a word into its constituent roots, prefixes, and suffixes that we can recognize, if there are some remaining part in the word that we can not recognize, then we leave it as is with (???) added for the meaning for that part.

For example, we dissect therapeutics as:

therapeutics = therap (cure, treatment of disease 治疗) + eut (???) + -ics (science, a branch of study 科学)   Note: we do not know what it is meant by eut here yet, so we put (???) for its meaning
a branch of medical science that deals with the treatment of diseases or application of remedies to diseases 治疗学